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We are delighted to share the U.S. chapter we wrote for Chambers & Partners Corporate M&A 2025 Guide, published in April 2025. Our chapter provides insights on the current M&A landscape in the U.S., exploring different strategies, challenges and crucial details that businesses may face in private and public M&A transactions. We cover essential topics such as market trends, hostile tender offers and defensive measures, and restrictions on foreign investments. The chapter is a comprehensive guide to understanding the complexities surrounding M&A transactions and getting up to date with key legal and regulatory changes, including recent Delaware corporate law amendments and changes to the HSR form. Whether you are a seasoned professional or just stepping into the world of M&A, this guide is an invaluable resource in navigating the complex and ever-changing world of U.S. M&A.
In 2024, M&A activity levels increased and showed a marked improvement over 2023, which had the lowest levels of M&A activity globally in value terms for almost a decade. However, the increase in the global M&A market was tempered by continued concerns about persistent inflation and high interest rates, a tight financing market, increased regulatory scrutiny, geopolitical uncertainty and difficult labor market conditions, culminating in a milder increase in global M&A activity by year-end than had been initially hoped for by market participants at the outset of 2024.
Still, the U.S. M&A market is by far the largest M&A market in the world, with the USA accounting for more than half of total global deal value in 2024 (even while deal counts both in the USA and globally remained relatively the same as the previous year). While M&A practitioners were cautiously optimistic for a more meaningful recovery of M&A activity in the beginning of 2025, escalating geopolitical tensions and market volatility amid unpredictable tariff and other policy changes since January have diminished expectations for a significant pickup in M&A this year. Whether the challenging M&A market may change course as the year progresses remains to be seen.
The last year continued to be marked by persistent inflation, high interest rates, geopolitical uncertainty and lower global growth prospects that led to M&A market participants pausing or significantly reducing their investments, and to increased target selectivity among potential buyers and knock-on effects on competitive auction processes. As a result, the multiples that buyers were willing to pay for assets, as expressed by their EV/EBITDA ratio, continued falling in this environment, when compared to multiples in 2022.
Deal timelines have been getting longer over the last couple of years, and this trend is particularly pronounced for mega-deals. Due diligence periods have been extended with increased buyer concern about the risks of an asset, while the period between signing and closing has also significantly lengthened because of a much longer regulatory review process (which may also be impacted by the recent changes to the HSR form; see 3.2 Significant Changes to Takeover Law), though there is hope that a more favorable regulatory environment will serve to shorten this timeline. A greater focus is expected on how to apportion risks relating to the period between signing and closing, whether and how to address concerns raised by antitrust authorities and how to secure financing (if it is needed) for an extended period.
Antitrust enforcement continues to present challenges for deal making, as agencies are expected to continue prioritizing merger enforcement, although they are expected to be more receptive to exploring remedies.
In 2024, while deal volume decreased in most industries compared to 2023, deal value was actually up across most industries, including technology, telecommunications, financial services and industrials, underscoring a trend towards higher value deals. Expectations are that the leading sectors will continue to be technology (particularly around AI and machine learning), energy (especially renewables) and life sciences. The increase in private equity deal activity – which was up over 30% in deal value in 2024 – is expected to continue into 2025.
A stock purchase, asset purchase, merger or tender offer are the common transaction structures that can be used to acquire a U.S. company.
Acquisitions of Private Companies
An acquisition of a private company is often structured as a stock or asset purchase, but may need to be structured as a merger transaction if the company has a larger number of shareholders.
Stock purchases
A stock purchase is a typical method for acquiring all or part of a private company, or a division of a private company whose business is conducted through a subsidiary, where the buyer will purchase the stock of a target company from seller shareholder(s). To acquire all of the target’s stock, all shareholder(s) need to be party to the transaction pursuant to a stock purchase agreement.
Asset purchases
An asset purchase is often used to acquire select assets or a division of a target company where the buyer will purchase identified assets and assume identified liabilities of the target company pursuant to an asset purchase agreement. The asset purchase structure allows parties to exclude specific assets and liabilities, which is a key negotiation point in an asset purchase deal.
Acquisitions of Public Companies
The most common means of acquiring a U.S. public company are via a merger and/or tender offer.
One-step merger
A merger is a combination of two entities by operation of law, in accordance with the statutory corporate law of the states of the constituent entities, pursuant to a merger agreement that sets forth the terms and conditions of the acquisition, and is approved by the boards of directors of the target and acquirer and then subsequently adopted by the target’s shareholders (generally by the holders of a majority of the outstanding shares) at a shareholders’ meeting. A merger is a single-step transaction, whereby, pursuant to operation of law, all of the shares of the target company are converted into the right to receive the merger consideration (which may be cash, securities or other property).
Tender offer
A tender offer is a direct offer to the shareholders of the target company to purchase their shares. Therefore, it is highly likely that not all of the shareholders of the target will tender their shares into the tender offer. For a bidder to acquire all of the shares of the target, a tender offer is inevitably a multi-step transaction, whereby, following the initial purchase of shares in the tender offer meeting a requisite threshold, the remaining shareholders of the target have to be “squeezed out” through a second-step statutory merger.
Because a tender offer is an offer made directly to the shareholders, no board of directors’ approval from the target company is technically required, although most friendly tender offers are made pursuant to a board-approved merger agreement. Most hostile transactions involve a tender offer because the acquirer can bypass the target’s board of directors and management. In any event, the board of directors of the target company will be required under other rules of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to state its position on the tender offer.
The state law of the target company’s jurisdiction of incorporation will govern many aspects of an acquisition, including substantive requirements of fairness on the transaction and provision of target company anti-takeover defenses, such as the ability to implement shareholder rights plans (i.e., “poison pills”). In contrast, U.S. federal law relating to acquisitions is generally part of the U.S. securities laws and regulations and is mostly focused on adequacy of disclosure relating to the proposed transaction, the tender offer process or proxy solicitations. Federal securities laws applicable to public companies and the sale and purchase of securities are administered and enforced by the SEC; alleged violations of state corporate law are typically challenged by private plaintiffs in state courts (private plaintiffs also often challenge violations of federal securities laws in federal courts). State securities (aka “blue sky”) laws may also be applicable depending on the relevant state. If a U.S. publicly traded entity is involved in the transaction, stock exchange rules may also be applicable.
U.S. federal antitrust laws are enforced by the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice (DOJ) and by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC).
Depending on the industries and jurisdictions in which the target and acquirer operate, other approvals from state and federal regulatory authorities may be required.
There are several sectors (e.g., airlines, shipping between U.S. ports and broadcast communications) in which the U.S. government restricts foreign ownership or attaches special regulatory requirements for foreign owners. In some cases, a distinction may be made between foreign ownership by private sector and government entities. Waivers or licenses allowing foreign owners to exceed standard limits are sometimes available. There are also transactions in which foreign ownership is not limited, but is subject to regulatory requirements (e.g., registration under the Foreign Agents Registration Act for U.S. subsidiaries of Chinese state-owned newspapers). The U.S. government also has four separate national security-based processes for regulating inbound foreign investment and a newly implemented programme for regulating certain outbound foreign investments. See 2.6 National Security Review for more details.
In the United States, the main antitrust regulations applicable to business combinations are (each as amended):
The HSR Act prescribes a pre-merger notification procedure for certain business combinations, while the Sherman and FTC Acts prohibit certain anti-competitive conduct; the Clayton Act prohibits, among other things, anti-competitive transactions.
The HSR Act requires that the parties to proposed stock or asset transactions file pre-merger notifications with the FTC and DOJ and observe a waiting period (usually 30 calendar days; 15 calendar days for cash tender offers and transactions in bankruptcy) if the transaction exceeds certain thresholds. This initial waiting period allows federal antitrust authorities to investigate the transaction prior to its consummation on the basis of the filing. If the government declines to take enforcement action concerning the acquisition, the parties may close from a U.S. antitrust perspective within one year once the waiting period expires. Otherwise, the government may act before the initial period expires by issuing a “Second Request”, although the acquirer may choose to “pull and refile” its notification to effectively grant the government an additional 30 or 15 days, as the case may be, to review the transaction without issuing a Second Request.
A Second Request will extend the waiting period and requires the parties to submit a wide range of documents and answer numerous interrogatories. After the parties have substantially complied with these requests, a second 30-calendar day (or 10-calendar day for cash tender offers and transactions in bankruptcy) waiting period begins. There is a one-year deadline within which to substantially comply with the Second Request, and parties receiving a Second Request cannot close before the second waiting period expires. The antitrust agencies typically seek a timing agreement with the parties that obligates the parties to provide several weeks’ notice of substantial compliance and closing.
If the government still has substantive concerns about the transaction at the end of this period and has not reached agreement with the parties on an appropriate remedy, it can seek to enjoin the closing of the transaction in federal district court. In the absence of an injunction, parties may close the deal, subject to any applicable timing agreement.
Employee benefit and executive compensation-related issues, implicating federal, state and local laws, have been known to unravel M&A transactions. Sellers may reduce risks and streamline negotiations through proactive pre-sale planning. On the other hand, buyers may be able to maximize their deal-related protections and their post-closing alternatives by ensuring early-stage attention to the matters discussed below.
Employment
Employment arrangements in the United States are generally “at will.” Buyers need to consider worker classification and proper visa status of workers. Buyers should be aware of the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act and similar state laws that may give employees the right to early notice of impending lay-offs or plant closings (or salary in lieu of notice).
Both buyers and sellers need to assess whether key employees have a right to resign with full severance on a change in control and whether such employees are subject to post-employment restrictive covenants. Generally, employment-related covenants and agreements should be reviewed to determine if they are adequate and assignable to the buyer (or surviving entity). The enforceability of such agreements is determined on a state-by-state basis as certain states have restricted or banned the use of non-competes.
Equity plans and award agreements
Buyers need to review employee equity plans and the impact of a change of control on outstanding employee equity. Numerous considerations go into determining treatment of equity awards in a deal, including:
Non-qualified deferred compensation plans
Key issues for the buyer to consider include:
Employee benefits
Buyers should be aware of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA), which governs the operation and terms of certain employee benefit plans, including their treatment in connection with transactions.
Retirement plans
There has been an avalanche of litigation surrounding excessive fees, poorly monitored investments and claims related to employer stock investments in 401(k) plans. Additionally, compliance problems in need of correction and their impact on a possible plan termination or plan merger may need to be assessed. Buyers and sellers need to also determine whether any plans of buyer and seller should be terminated prior to a change of control.
If a seller maintains a defined benefit plan, actuarial assistance may be needed to understand the funded position of such plans and whether the actuarial assumptions used are reasonable. Often, the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation may insert themselves into the M&A process if either the buyer or seller has a significantly underfunded pension plan.
If the buyer has a collectively bargained workforce, attention will be needed to understand whether the buyer participates in multi-employer pension plans sponsored by a union, and whether the structure of the transaction will result in a withdrawal under the plan and withdrawal liability.
Health plans
The buyer would need to know whether the health plans are self-insured and whether they maintain adequate stop-loss coverage. The parties must also understand their obligations under the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) and similar state laws that provide benefit continuation coverage after termination of employment. Certain states may also require the payout of accrued leave or other benefits. Additionally, the buyer must also consider:
Golden Parachute Excise Taxes
Section 280G of the Code regulates “golden parachute” payments made to certain key employees in M&A transactions. If Section 280G is triggered, excise taxes may be imposed on key executives at the company and the company may lose corporate deductions, so early analysis will be critical.
There are generally four different U.S. bodies responsible for addressing national security concerns that could arise from inbound foreign investments:
A new Outbound Investment Security Program applicable to outbound foreign investments is also in place. A single transaction can implicate more than one regime.
CFIUS is a multi-agency panel charged with identifying and addressing national security risks arising from a wide variety of foreign investments in U.S. businesses and certain transactions involving U.S. real estate. The CFIUS process normally involves a joint filing by the parties to a transaction, typically followed by additional questions from CFIUS. CFIUS has jurisdiction over any acquisition of control of a U.S. business (often including U.S. activities of a non-U.S. parent) and also has jurisdiction over certain non-controlling investments in companies involved with critical technologies, critical infrastructure or sensitive personal data (“TID Businesses”). Investments in TID Businesses can sometimes be subject to mandatory pre-closing CFIUS filings.
CFIUS’ jurisdiction over a transaction is perpetual, and CFIUS will have the right to call in the transaction for review at any time after closing. On the other hand, CFIUS offers a “safe harbor” against further review if it has cleared an acquisition of control or a non-controlling investment (though, in the latter case, incremental acquisitions that increase the investor’s rights can be subject to a new CFIUS case).
The DCSA is an element of the U.S. Department of Defense, responsible for mitigating foreign ownership, control or influence (FOCI) of government contractors and subcontractors. Traditionally, FOCI mitigation was limited to U.S. businesses that hold facility security clearances. In 2024, the DCSA began selectively mitigating FOCI of certain U.S. government contractors and subcontractors that do not hold facility security clearances but are otherwise engaged in activities the DCSA deems sensitive. The DCSA does not approve transactions, but failure to receive FOCI mitigation could lead to the DCSA terminating the contractor’s facility clearance, disabling its ability to continue performing on sensitive contracts.
The DDTC regulates foreign ownership or control of manufacturers, service providers, exporters and brokers whose activities are governed by the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), a set of export controls governing military goods and services. The DDTC requires pre- and post-closing notifications of new or changed foreign ownership or control of ITAR registrants, mainly to confirm that foreign investors or other foreign parties are not improperly afforded access to ITAR-controlled technology. Like the DCSA, the DDTC cannot block a transaction, but non-compliance with ITAR compliance can cause revocation of a company’s registration.
Team Telecom is a multi-agency panel led by the Departments of Justice, Homeland Security and Defense, which conducts national security- and law enforcement-related reviews of foreign applications for certain telecommunications licenses granted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Team Telecom can recommend that the FCC deny (or in some cases terminate) a license or place conditions on the granting or transfer of ownership of a license.
The Outbound Investment Security Program, which took effect on January 2, 2025, either prohibits or requires notification of U.S.-led investments directly or indirectly supporting certain activities by entities in or controlled from China that relate to semiconductors and microelectronics, quantum computing or AI. The scope of the regulations is broad and can include non-U.S. investors in which U.S. persons are participating in making the investment decisions and non-Chinese investment targets that have substantial affiliated operations in China.
Effective August 1, 2024, the Delaware legislature amended several provisions of the General Corporation Law of the State of Delaware (DGCL) in response to recent court decisions. The amendments, which applied retroactively, included changes that expressly provide that corporations may enter into shareholder agreements with current or prospective stockholders that contain governance rights over the corporation, and set out that any agreement or document that must be approved by a board needs to be in final or substantially final form when it is approved. Disclosure schedules or similar documents are also not deemed part of a merger agreement for purposes of requiring the board to approve a final or substantially final form of the agreement unless the merger agreement expressly provides otherwise. Statutory provisions have also been added to clarify that parties may contractually provide in a merger agreement that the target is entitled to seek damages (including lost premium damages) for the buyer’s failure to perform its pre-closing obligations or consummate the merger in accordance with the merger agreement, and that the target is allowed to retain such payments (instead of having to distribute such proceeds to its stockholders). Additionally, a merger agreement may now provide that stockholders would appoint a stockholders’ representative to enforce their rights in connection with the merger.
On March 21, 2025, the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network issued an interim final rule that eliminates the requirement for U.S. companies and U.S. persons to submit beneficial ownership information reports under the Corporate Transparency Act (CTA) and its implementing regulations. The CTA reporting requirements have been met with several legal challenges; and under the interim final rule as of April 10, 2025, a “reporting company” subject to the CTA beneficial ownership reporting requirements now exclusively means companies who were formed under the laws of a foreign country that have registered to do business in the USA.
On March 26, 2025, significant DGCL amendments were enacted following fast-tracked approval by the Delaware legislature. The amendments codify safe harbor procedures that shield directors, officers and controlling stockholders from claims for damages or equitable relief in connection with interested director and officer as well as controlling stockholder transactions. The amendments also modify and supplement rules applicable to stockholder books and records inspections.
Significant changes to the pre-merger notification form under the HSR Act took effect on February 10, 2025. The new HSR form is a significant update from the old form, including:
The changes will materially increase the time it takes most parties to prepare their filings, with the FTC estimating that each filing will take on average 68 additional hours to prepare versus the old form (though a complex transaction could take significantly longer).
New agency leadership appointments signal that antitrust enforcement will still be a priority for the new administration, though the agencies may be more receptive to potential remedies to address concerns.
Stakebuilding is permitted in the United States and, in contrast to many other jurisdictions’ takeover laws, U.S. federal law does not mandate that an acquirer make a bid for the target upon reaching a specified threshold. Therefore, unless it has publicly announced or commences a tender offer for shares of the target, an acquirer may purchase a publicly traded target’s shares on the open market, so long as the acquirer does not violate insider trading rules. U.S. securities laws do generally require an acquirer to file a notification on Schedule 13D (or a short-form equivalent) upon crossing a 5% beneficial ownership threshold, as described in 4.2 Material Shareholding Disclosure Threshold. Additionally, acquisitions in excess of the HSR Act threshold (USD126.4 million as of February 2025) will require an antitrust filing.
Furthermore, a number of states, including Delaware, have “anti-takeover” statutes that have the effect of encouraging acquirers to negotiate with management and discourage certain hostile activities. For example, Delaware’s business combination statute prevents acquirers from entering into business combinations with a target if they have exceeded a specific ownership threshold (15%) unless they received prior board of directors’ approval or a super-majority vote of the stockholders.
Under Sections 13(d) and 13(g) of the U.S. Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the “Exchange Act”), persons or groups who own or acquire beneficial ownership of more than 5% of certain classes of equity securities registered under the Exchange Act are required to file beneficial ownership reports with the SEC. Generally, if Section 13(d) is triggered, a person must file a Schedule 13D unless they are eligible to use Schedule 13G. Schedule 13G, a shorter form requiring less disclosure, is available to passive investors meeting certain requirements.
A beneficial owner of a security includes any person who, directly or indirectly, has or shares either:
A Schedule 13D must be filed five business days after acquiring beneficial ownership of more than 5% or losing Schedule 13G eligibility, and Schedule 13D amendments must be filed within two business days after the triggering event.
U.S. public companies cannot introduce higher ownership reporting thresholds and generally would not introduce lower reporting thresholds than those mandated by federal securities laws. However, a target’s board of directors can implement certain obstacles to stakebuilding tied to ownership thresholds, such as adopting a shareholder rights plan (i.e., a “poison pill”); see 9.3 Common Defensive Measures.
Dealings in derivatives are allowed in the United States, subject to applicable insider trading restrictions.
Historically, holding derivatives that, by their terms, only provide the holder with economic exposure to a covered class of security has not been considered sufficient to constitute beneficial ownership and require disclosure under Regulation 13D-G. A person is deemed a beneficial owner of an equity security if the person:
If such a right originates in a derivative security that is nominally “cash-settled” or from an understanding in connection with that derivative security, the holder of such cash-settled derivative security may be deemed a beneficial owner.
Aspects of a derivative instrument, including if they carry the current right to vote for directors, can determine whether acquisition of derivatives would be reportable under the HSR Act.
Under U.S. federal securities laws, entry into a material definitive transaction agreement requires disclosure by public companies. Prior to signing the transaction agreement, a disclosure obligation can still exist for non-public information relating to a merger or acquisition if:
The U.S. Supreme Court has rejected the idea that merger negotiations are only material when the parties have agreed in principle to the price and structure of the transaction. The materiality of contingent or speculative events such as M&A is determined on a case-by-case basis. There are situations where the companies involved in negotiations may remain silent as long as they do not release false or misleading information.
Ultimately, the materiality of negotiations is still determined by weighing the magnitude against the probability of the event, with additional consideration to the sensitivity of the information and the business’ purpose compared to the substantial impact on investors of a potential merger or acquisition. In practice, the determination of whether to disclose negotiations often turns on the probability that the transaction will occur. While there is no bright line test which makes the event more probable than not (short of an agreement in principle), key events that a court may consider in determining whether a disclosure obligation exists include adoption of board resolutions, execution of a letter of intent and appointment of financial and other advisers.
Stock exchange disclosure and reporting rules and regulations governing disclosure of material non-public information also need to be considered in the M&A context.
See 7.1 Making a Bid Public.
In the USA, the buyer will generally carry out legal, financial, commercial and tax due diligence. The scope of due diligence review varies based on:
Information collected during the due diligence process can have an impact on:
U.S. market practice does not provide for the target company to prepare vendor due diligence reports for potential buyers.
If a target shareholder is to receive shares of buyer stock as consideration, reverse due diligence of the buyer would also be expected.
Standstill provisions are commonly included in confidentiality agreements if the target company is a public company, prohibiting a buyer from taking certain unsolicited actions with respect to a seller (e.g., acquiring securities, commencing a tender offer or otherwise trying to obtain control of the target company or its board or management without approval).
Potential buyers also often request that the target company enter into an exclusivity agreement providing for a period of exclusive negotiations following the end of an initial bidding phase. Negotiation dynamics will influence whether a seller would agree to such a request.
As noted above, friendly transactions are almost always effected pursuant to a board-approved merger agreement setting out the terms and conditions of the transaction between the acquirer and the target company, including whether the transaction is structured as a tender offer followed by a second-step merger.
The following factors, among others, determine how long the process of acquiring or selling a business in the United States takes:
The entire process (until closing) generally takes at minimum three to four months from when discussions are initiated.
Auctions
To maximize the sale price, sellers often run an auction process where they give potential buyers a confidential information memorandum, and the potential buyers submit their initial indications of interest several weeks (approximately three to four) thereafter. Potential buyers then normally submit their markup of the auction draft as part of their final bid, typically four to eight weeks after the initial indications of interest. Signing of the transaction agreement generally follows shortly after the seller’s receipt of the final bids and selection of the winning bidder.
Antitrust Waiting Period
See 2.4 Antitrust Regulations.
Long-Form (One-Step) Mergers
Where the target is a publicly traded company and the transaction is effected through a one-step merger (see 2.1 Acquiring a Company), to solicit the required shareholder vote, the target must prepare and file a detailed “proxy statement” with the SEC that complies with the SEC’s proxy rules. It typically takes up to two weeks to draft and file the initial proxy statement. The proxy statement may not be disseminated to shareholders until the SEC staff has commented on it and all such comments have been resolved, which may take several additional weeks.
Upon finalization, the target then mails the proxy statement to its shareholders and files the final version with the SEC. State law, the target’s constitutional documents and rules of the applicable stock exchange will dictate the minimum length of time between the mailing of the proxy materials and the date of the target company shareholders’ meeting to approve the merger, but it is typically 20 business days.
Assuming shareholder approval, the acquirer can then complete the merger rather quickly. Typically, such transactions close on the day that the shareholders approve the transaction or the following day.
Tender Offer
Generally, a cash tender offer (see 2.1 Acquiring a Company) takes only 30 to 60 days to close after the time that the definitive documents are executed; see 5.5 Definitive Agreements. However, the timeline for any tender offer or one-step mergers may be significantly impacted by regulatory clearances – e.g., antitrust and CFIUS.
U.S. federal securities laws and Delaware law applicable to tender offers do not require an acquirer that obtains a given threshold of the target company’s shares to make an offer for the remaining shares of the target company; see 4. Stakebuilding. However, a few states – e.g., Pennsylvania – have adopted “control share cash-out” statutes, whereby once an acquirer obtains control (i.e., exceeds a certain threshold of voting power) the other target company shareholders may make a demand on the acquirer to purchase their shares at a fair price.
When acquiring a company that is publicly traded in the United States, the proposed offer may be in the form of an exchange offer (i.e., equity share offer), a cash offer or a combination of the two. Where the bidder is a private company or is not publicly traded in the USA - for a majority of acquisitions of U.S. publicly traded companies - the consideration included in the bid is entirely cash.
Where there is a significant gap regarding valuation of the target company or in a deal environment or industry with high valuation uncertainty, parties may structure the purchase price such that they pay a lower price for the target company upfront but then make certain specified additional earn-out payments when certain business milestones are attained. These milestones may be tied to sales, revenue or, in certain industries such as biotech, regulatory approval of products developed or owned by the target. Alternatively, the acquirer may offer some of its stock as part of the consideration (in combination with cash) so that target company shareholders’ pre-acquisition can indirectly benefit from the post-acquisition success of the target company.
Generally, tender offers will be conditioned on:
In addition to the foregoing, a hostile tender offer will often require:
However, the conditions must:
Generally, tender offers are conditioned on the target company’s shareholders tendering a certain minimum number of shares, usually a number of shares sufficient to approve the subsequent merger to squeeze out the remaining shareholders; see 6.10 Squeeze-Out Mechanisms. The specific percentage required is based on state law and the target’s governing documents, but it is usually at least 50% of the shares plus one additional share.
It is now rare for a transaction to have a standalone financing condition precedent (CP), whereby an acquirer will not be required to close the transaction if it is unable to raise financing between signing and closing. To mitigate financing risk, parties now typically negotiate respective covenants in terms of consummating the financing (or, on the part of the seller, to co-operate with the financing process) and provide for termination rights and/or reverse termination fees payable by the buyer upon a financing failure. A target can also expect to receive evidence of committed debt financing for the buyer at signing, and to have the ability to seek specific performance or other equitable remedy to enforce the buyer’s obligation to close the transaction if debt financing has been funded and other CPs have been satisfied.
In the United States, the parties to the transaction may agree to a variety of “deal-protection” terms. While the target and acquirer need to negotiate such terms on a case-by-case basis, some common terms in the U.S. market are discussed below.
“No-shop” clauses restrict the target company’s management and board of directors from soliciting any other bids or from providing any confidential information to any third-party bidders, in each case, subject to the board of directors’ fiduciary duties. These clauses typically permit the target company to entertain unsolicited proposals.
Break fees are payable to the acquirer if the target company’s board of directors’ recommendation is withdrawn or if the transaction is not approved by the target company shareholders due to another transaction that has been proposed by an interloper. In certain cases, a break fee may be payable by the acquirer in the event that it fails to close the acquisition (“reverse” break fees).
Board or “force the vote” commitments require the board of directors to submit the transaction to the target company’s shareholders for a vote, even if the board no longer recommends that shareholders vote in favor of the transaction.
Right to match (or top) other offers – if the target receives a third-party proposal, the bidder has the right to change the terms of its proposal to “match” or “top” the third-party proposal.
See also 6.11 Irrevocable Commitments.
While the above mechanisms can help safeguard the success of an acquisition, state law imposes fiduciary duties on any target company’s board of directors, which can limit the use of certain deal-protection terms and make it virtually impossible to “lock in” a transaction.
Generally, unless the deal is signed and closed simultaneously, the transaction will involve interim operating covenants for the period between signing and closing. Interim operating covenants require the target to maintain the target business between signing and closing and to deliver it at closing without material impairment.
Generally, a large shareholder will seek governance rights and other protections of its stock in a company – e.g., designation right to the board of directors and a consent right to changes to the target governing documents or material business transactions.
The bidder may also seek information rights – e.g., appointing a non-voting board observer or requiring periodic financial information and reports about the company’s operations.
The bidder may also look to obtain certain rights allowing it to exit its investment – e.g., requiring registration rights for the bidder’s shares or a drag-along provision allowing it to compel other shareholders to join a sale of the company’s shares.
Voting by proxy is generally allowed under state law, federal regulations and rules of applicable U.S. stock exchanges. The majority of shareholders of public corporations vote by proxy.
State law and the target company’s governance documents will generally set out requirements relating to:
SEC rules and regulations promulgated under the Exchange Act govern proxy solicitation of shareholders of publicly traded companies. These regulations provide additional procedural requirements and require certain information to be included in the proxy statement sent to shareholders as part of the proxy solicitation.
Lastly, the exchange on which the target company’s stock is traded (e.g., New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) or the Nasdaq Stock Market (Nasdaq)) may impose additional timing and disclosure requirements. While the exchanges may require that certain nominees be able to vote on behalf of the beneficial holders of the stock, both the NYSE and Nasdaq prohibit such voting for non-routine matters (e.g., M&A) without specific instructions from the beneficial holders.
In Delaware, a squeeze-out in the form of an intermediate form merger can be effected without obtaining stockholder approval following successful completion of a tender offer for at least a majority of the outstanding shares, provided the merger meets certain procedural conditions pursuant to Section 251(h) of the DGCL. Otherwise, 90% is the most typical threshold for short-form mergers and is the threshold set by New York and for squeeze-outs in Delaware, except following a tender offer as described in the foregoing sentence. In a friendly transaction, a “top-up” stock option may be granted by the target company to the acquirer pursuant to which the target company would issue up to 19.9% of its outstanding shares to help the acquirer reach the short-form squeeze-out threshold. See 2.1 Acquiring a Company.
If, upon completion of the tender offer, the acquirer owns less than the minimum amount of the target company’s shares necessary to complete a short-form merger or otherwise does not meet the requirements of DGCL Section 251(h) as mentioned above, a long-form merger following the tender offer would be subject to shareholder approval. Since the acquirer should own the requisite number of the target company’s shares, such approval should be assured; see 6.5 Minimum Acceptance Conditions. However, the acquirer would still need to comply with state law procedures relating to the calling of a shareholders’ meeting and SEC requirements relating to proxy statements. Regardless of whether a long-form or short-form merger is utilized, appraisal rights may apply.
Before announcing a transaction, the acquirer may wish to execute agreements with the target company’s board of directors and senior management to ensure their support of the transaction, and that they will tender any shares they own into a tender offer or vote in favor of a proposed merger. In some cases, if the target company has one or more significant shareholders, requiring such shareholders to sell their stock to the acquirer, vote their stock in favor of the merger (and against any competing transaction) and/or to tender their stock into the tender or exchange offer, is an effective way to “lock up” the deal.
However, Delaware courts have struck down such lock-up agreements that absolutely preclude the target company’s shareholders from availing themselves of a more attractive subsequent offer. Further, commitments by directors will be subject to the reasonableness review in light of the directors’ duties; see discussion of Revlon under 8.3 Business Judgement Rule.
For a tender offer, the SEC rules require that the acquirer files a Schedule TO (including an offer to purchase and related documents, such as a letter of transmittal). If the deal is only for cash consideration, the Schedule TO is relatively straightforward and, assuming advance preparation, is often filed on the day of (or shortly following) the announcement of the bid for the target.
For a merger, the parties will generally jointly announce the transaction when the definitive merger agreement has been entered into between the target and the acquirer. A publicly traded target company must disclose the material terms of the transaction, in a filing made with the SEC, within four business days of entry into the definitive transaction documents. Such material terms include, among others, price, break fees and conditions precedent to closing.
To solicit a required shareholder vote for a merger, the target must prepare and file a detailed “proxy statement” with the SEC that complies with the SEC’s proxy rules. Following the SEC’s review, the target then files the final version with the SEC and mails the finalized proxy statement to its shareholders.
To offer securities to the target company shareholders as consideration for the acquisition, those securities will need to be registered under the U.S. Securities Act of 1933 (the “Securities Act”), unless an exemption applies. A registration statement for registering the securities would include (among other information) risk factors, business descriptions, financial statements, management’s discussion and analysis of financial conditions as well as transaction-specific information that would be required in a proxy statement or a Schedule TO, as applicable.
Whether a bidder needs to produce financial statements in its disclosure documents is determined on a case-by-case basis. For example, there may be situations – e.g., an all-cash offer that is not conditioned on the bidder obtaining financing – where the financial condition of the bidder may not be material to the target company’s shareholders.
In a registered exchange offer or merger in which all or a portion of the merger consideration consists of securities, financial statement issues can add significant time and expense to the process to the extent that financial statements, both of the acquired business and pro forma for the combined company, may be necessary, depending on the magnitude of the transaction to the acquirer, and the requirement that financial statements filed with the SEC be prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) as promulgated by the International Accounting Standards Board (or, failing those, with a reconciliation to GAAP).
Parties generally may omit transaction agreement schedules, exhibits or attachments that do not have material transaction terms or information that would otherwise be material to the shareholders’ investment decision or can otherwise request confidential treatment for portions of filed transaction documents. Nonetheless, the SEC may still request that such materials be submitted to it confidentially. See 7.1 Making a Bid Public.
Directors of a Delaware corporation owe two core fiduciary duties to the corporation and to its stockholders: the duty of care and the duty of loyalty. In Delaware, the obligation of good faith underlies these two core fiduciary duties.
The duty of care requires directors to act in an informed and considered manner. Accordingly, directors must inform themselves, prior to making a business decision, of all material information reasonably available to them and, based on such information, must act with due care in discharging their duties. Generally, directors will be liable for a breach of their duty of care only if they are found to have acted with gross negligence.
The duty of loyalty requires directors to act without self-interest and in the best interests of the corporation and its stockholders. Directors must refrain from fraudulent conduct, self-dealing and actions intended to entrench themselves in office. Furthermore, directors may not take personal advantage of business opportunities at the expense of the corporation. Directors found to have breached their duty of loyalty may be subject to personal liability under Delaware law.
While Delaware’s approach to directors’ duties emphasizes “the primacy of the stockholder,” some other states permit, and even require, the board to consider interests of other constituencies such as employees, customers and suppliers.
Boards of directors will sometimes establish special or ad hoc committees, comprised of independent directors, to negotiate the terms of a potential business combination. Such special committee of the board will often be formed where the majority of the directors are not independent (or are conflicted), or when a controlling shareholder stands on both sides of the potential transaction or will receive different consideration in the transaction or in any side agreement to the detriment of the other shareholders. A properly functioning special committee should select and retain its own independent advisers who are free of conflicts, and the committee must be fully informed, both regarding the terms of the transaction and in terms of diligence. To fulfil their duties, the directors on the committee must actively oversee the conduct of the transaction.
Under the “business judgement rule”, Delaware courts will presume that directors have satisfied their fiduciary duties if they have made their decisions in good faith, on the basis of a reasonable investigation and after careful consideration of all material factors reasonably available, in accordance with what they honestly believe to be the best interests of the corporation and its stockholders. In applying the business judgement rule, Delaware courts do not measure, weigh or quantify directors’ judgements, nor will courts decide if they are reasonable in the usual context, but instead will only consider whether a rational decision-making process has been demonstrated.
However, Delaware courts will apply heightened standards of review in certain contexts, as noted below.
Enhanced Scrutiny
Unocal: defensive measures
Prior to taking defensive action (see 9. Defensive Measures) against a threatened acquisition of control or takeover of the corporation, the board must – after a reasonable investigation – have reasonable grounds for believing there is a danger to corporate policy and effectiveness. Further, the directors must show that the action taken was “reasonable in relation to the threat posed.”
Revlon: sale or break-up of the company
If the board of directors authorizes the sale of control or break-up of the company, the directors have a duty to seek the highest value reasonably available. This (Revlon) duty will generally be triggered if a company initiates an active bidding process seeking to sell itself or to effect a business reorganization involving a clear break-up of the company or if, in response to a takeover proposal, a company abandons its long-term strategy and seeks an alternative transaction involving a break-up or sale of the company. If the Revlon duty is not met, the board decision will be reviewed under the more exacting standard of entire fairness (discussed below) instead of the business judgement rule.
Entire Fairness: Conflicts of Interest
The presumptions of the business judgement rule will not automatically apply to transactions involving conflicted directors or a controlling stockholder. However, Delaware law may provide for a “safe harbor” for such transactions whereby such transactions may get the benefit of business judgement rule review if the transaction is conditioned up-front on:
Otherwise, the transaction may still be upheld if the interested director or controlling stockholder can demonstrate that the transaction satisfies the more demanding standard of “entire fairness” (i.e., “fair dealing” and a “fair price”). Please note that the foregoing regarding conflicted transactions may change if recent DGCL amendment proposals are adopted (see 3.1 Significant Court Decisions or Legal Developments).
A target company board will generally engage external legal and financial advisers and may also engage external accountants and consultants in consideration of a potential business transaction. A director can rely on such outside advisers and consideration of robust advice from such advisers is important to demonstrating satisfaction of the director’s fiduciary duties. Target company boards generally also request a “fairness opinion” from the financial advisers on whether, from a financial standpoint, the proposed consideration is fair.
Judicial scrutiny of conflicts of interest between principals and their advisers is a point of focus, in particular when the target’s financial adviser also seeks to provide acquisition financing to the acquirer or when they may potentially favor one acquirer over another. The board of directors should educate itself on areas of potential conflicts of interest (and perceived conflicts of interest) and carefully supervise and manage selection and conduct of its outside advisers.
Even though hostile tender offers are permitted in the United States, they are significantly less common than negotiated or “friendly” tender offers. Because the board is able to deploy various anti-takeover defenses (see 9.3 Common Defensive Measures), even an initially unsolicited bidder may find it necessary or more advantageous to negotiate with the target company’s management to increase the likelihood of completing the transaction. Additionally, negotiated transactions are usually completed more quickly and provide for lower transaction risk for the hostile bidder, including the ability to have access to non-public due diligence materials.
Available defensive mechanisms generally encourage acquirers to negotiate with management and discourage certain hostile activities, subject to the board of directors’ fiduciary duties. Ultimately, the target company’s board of directors may remove most obstacles to an acquisition, and they may be required to do so if they believe their fiduciary duties to the target company and its shareholders so require; see 8. Duties of Directors.
Statutory Anti-Takeover Defenses
State law may include certain anti-takeover provisions authorizing the board to adopt certain measures that expand the board’s ability to defend against a takeover. Examples include the following:
Provisions Against Bidder Control
Additionally, the organizational documents of the target company may contain various provisions allowing a board to defend against a takeover:
Additionally, a target company may make the hostile takeover less attractive to the bidder by:
See 8.3 Business Judgement Rule.
Subject to directors’ Revlon duty (sale or break-up of the company) and other fiduciary duties (see 8. Duties of Directors), directors generally have the authority to “just say no” to a proposed business combination (but not “just say never” under certain circumstances). Although the board of directors’ use of defensive measures may be subject to heighted review, the decision to say no should likely fall within the protections of the business judgement rule; see 8.3 Business Judgement Rule.
Litigation by shareholders is very common for acquisitions of public companies in the United States; however, it is relatively uncommon for such litigation to completely derail transactions, due in part to:
Potential litigants have continued and are expected to continue to look for alternative paths in disputing M&A transactions.
Under Delaware law, stockholders who do not vote in favor of a cash merger are generally entitled to an appraisal by the Delaware Court of Chancery of the fair value of the stockholder’s shares. No appraisal rights are available if the merger consideration consists solely of shares of U.S.-listed stock.
While appraisal actions have historically been common, recent decisions by the Delaware Supreme Court give significant weight to market-based indicators of value (e.g., the target company’s stock price or the transaction price) in the absence of showing that the target’s stock trades inefficiently or that there was no robust sale process.
Litigation is usually initiated shortly (usually a matter of days) after the transaction is publicly announced. The timing is mainly driven by:
Due to the recent COVID-19 pandemic, target companies have insisted on certain exceptions to interim operating covenants that allow them latitude to respond appropriately to a changed business environment between signing and closing (see 6.7 Types of Deal Security Measures) and carveouts for pandemic effects in the definition of “material adverse change.”
Shareholder activism continues to be an important market force, and for the first time, in 2024, strategic and operational demands were more popular than M&A demands among major activists. Nonetheless, in line with the increased levels of M&A activity, activists are increasingly launching M&A-focused campaigns. Certain sectors, including technology, industrials, consumer, communications and media, and healthcare, have seen a high concentration of activist activity in comparison to other sectors.
M&A-focused activist campaigns have continued to form a substantial portion of activism campaigns, as activists seek to cause public companies to either put themselves or a business division for sale in response to perceived underperformance.
With increased scrutiny on companies’ M&A strategies, activists have continued to launch campaigns on pending transactions with the aim of potentially recutting deals, either with respect to the purchase price or other transaction terms.
In Other News
Read past issues of our U.S. M&A Newsletter here. We thought you might also find the following articles featuring our Linklaters colleagues useful.
Linklaters: Stepping into the Void? State and Local Authorities Pledge to Be Active in White-Collar Enforcement
Linklaters: USDOJ Lands First Criminal Labor Market Success with Wage-Fixing Conviction
Linklaters: SEC Transactions and Compliance Group - Q1 2025 Round-Up
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