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On 31 December 2020, the Transition Period with respect to the United Kingdom’s departure from the European Union ended, with the UK ceasing to be treated as a Member State of the European Union. Amongst other consequences, the UK is no longer directly subject to EU law, including AIFMD. This has a profound impact on the provision of services by AIFMs from the EU into the UK and from the UK into EU Member States.
While AIFMD no longer binds the UK in its implementation, the UK has put in place a domestic regime regulating the management and marketing of AIFs in the UK, which generally maintains the rules set out in AIFMD as implemented at the end of the Transition Period and thus not following the continued evolution of AIFMD in the EU, including with AIFMD II as will take effect in EU Member States’ national laws in 2026.
The UK government and the FCA are currently consulting on changes to the UK’s alternative investment fund manager rules. Whilst the UK is not contemplating rewriting UK AIFMD entirely, it is looking to review and streamline the regime, including to ensure proportionality to the risks taking into account the different sectors of the asset management industry and sizes of managers. Current proposals include replacing the current categorisation (thresholds) of AIFMs and applying rules proportionately, ensuring the adequacy and effectiveness of the rules addressing leverage risks, and streamlining UK AIFM notifications. The rules would be consolidated in the FCA’s rulebook, with updated legislation limited to providing an overarching framework. See our note on the UK’s proposed reforms, published in April 2025.
With the end of the Transition Period, the pan-European passports enabling EU AIFMs to manage and market EU AIFs in any EU Member State no longer apply in relation to the UK. As the third-country passport regime envisaged by AIFMD has not been implemented to date, cross-border management and marketing of AIFs between the EU and the UK is instead subject to varying national rules in the UK and in EU Member States (including under various NPPR regimes). The UK and several Member States made provision for AIFMs (and AIFs) using their passports during a transition period to continue doing so on a temporary basis.
The UK AIFMD regime is now predominantly set out in a combination of:
The UK Regulations and relevant retained EU law were amended by the Alternative Investment Fund Managers (Amendment etc.) (EU Exit) Regulations 2019 (SI 2019/328) to address gaps and deficiencies arising from the withdrawal of the UK from the EU. As noted above, it is proposed that these rules will all be consolidated into the FCA Handbook as part of UK AIFMD reform.
The FCA’s detailed perimeter guidance (PERG) on its implementation of AIFMD remains applicable to the UK AIFMD regime. This guidance was never applicable to the interpretation of AIFMD by other EU regulators.
The UK AIFMD regime generally maintains the rules set out in AIFMD as implemented at the end of the Transition Period. At the time of writing, modifications to the regime have generally been limited to those required to ensure its effective operation now that the UK is not an EU Member State. These include changes to:
As described above, the UK AIFMD regime now diverges in its approach from that of the EU as a result of both not following changes to AIFMD made by the EU since Brexit, and changes to the UK’s existing rules (including with the expected reform of UK AIFMD). For example, the UK has not implemented the EU’s legislative package in relation to the cross-border distribution of investment funds (please see below) and will not implement AIFMD II.
The pan-European marketing passport under AIFMD no longer applies to the UK. Accordingly, UK AIFMs may no longer use the passport to market EU AIFs and UK AIFs they manage in the EU, and EU AIFMs may no longer use the passport to market their EU AIFs and UK AIFs in the UK (subject to the Temporary Permissions Regime, mentioned below).
UK AIFMs are now considered non-EU AIFMs under AIFMD, and therefore may no longer avail themselves of the pan-European marketing passport in order to market EU AIFs to professional investors in the EU. UK AIFMs may only conduct their marketing activities in EU Member States in relation to AIFs they manage on the basis of a notification and/or approval under the relevant EU Member State’s NPPR regime(s) implementing Article 42 of AIFMD, where provided for. Please see the “Marketing – Private Placement” page for more information.
AIFMD contemplates the extension of the pan-European marketing passport to non-EU AIFMs (and non-EU AIFs) at a later date and sets out the relevant passporting arrangements. Whilst an initial review was conducted by ESMA in 2015 as provided for in AIFMD, the third country passport has not been implemented to date and no steps were taken to extend the AIFMD passport to third countries with the publication of AIFMD II. Please see the “Marketing – Passport” page for more information.
Subject to the Temporary Marketing Permissions Regime mentioned below, EU AIFMs may no longer use the marketing passport under AIFMD to market EU AIFs or UK AIFs to professional investors in the UK. EU AIFMs seeking to market EU, UK or other third country AIFs in the UK are required to make the relevant notification to the FCA under the UK’s NPPR pursuant to Regulation 59 of the UK Regulations (or Regulation 58, in the case of small AIFMs). Please see the “Marketing – Private Placement” page for more information.
EU UCITS are now considered third country AIFs from a UK perspective. As a general matter, NPPR filings referred to above must be made in order to market EU UCITS in the UK, and they may not be marketed generally to retail investors in the UK (subject to a Temporary Marketing Permissions Regime that was available to EU UCITS that were already being marketed in the UK under the UCITS Directive passport during the Transition Period).
However, the FCA has power to individually recognise non-UK funds as suitable for sale to retail investors under section 272 of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 – an individually recognised scheme would not need to make an NPPR filing as described above.
The UK government has also enacted a more streamlined Overseas Fund Regime (“OFR”) enabling non-UK funds to be recognised for marketing to retail investors in the UK based on a determination that the relevant type of overseas fund provides equivalent protection to the UK’s authorised fund regime. Currently, the OFR is available to EU UCITS, with the exception of money-market funds. EU UCITS that have not previously marketed to UK retail investors, as well as EU UCITS that are currently operating under the Temporary Marketing Permissions Regime are able to apply to be recognised under the OFR. Again, a UK NPPR filing would not be required in order to market in the UK an EU UCITS recognised under the Overseas Fund Regime.
The UK Regulations provided for a Temporary Permissions Regime (the “TPR”), which lasted for three years from the end of the Transition Period. This includes a Temporary Marketing Permissions Regime (“TMPR”) under which an EU AIFM that was marketing a UK AIF or EU AIF in the UK on the basis of the AIFMD marketing passport during the Transition Period was able to request temporary permission to continue marketing that AIF in the UK after the end of the Transition Period on the same terms and conditions.
Although the TMPR window is now closed, so AIFs not already within the TMPR cannot now access it, the period of operation was extended to 31 December 2026 for EU UCITS in order to give adequate time for the relevant managers and the FCA to process applications under the OFR (in designated “landing slots”) or for those managers to withdraw from marketing the relevant EU UCITS in the UK.
Generally, an AIFM utilising the TMPR is subject to the same rules which currently apply to it in its home state. However, the FCA has some additional responsibilities and may require additional information from the AIFM. Whilst relying on the TMPR, the EU AIFM must:
Whilst the TMPR applies, the FCA will have the power to take certain measures against the EU AIFM in relation to revoking or suspending its ability to market in the UK, e.g. in the event of non-compliance.
UK AIFMs seeking to market an EU AIF in the UK for the first time must make the requisite notification to the FCA pursuant to Regulation 57 of the UK Regulations. Please see the “Marketing – Private Placement” page for more information.
EU AIFMs marketing UK AIFs in the EU will need to comply with relevant NPPR regime(s) implementing Article 36 of AIFMD. Please see the “Marketing – Private Placement” page for more information.
The UK decided not to implement the EU’s package of measures relating to the cross-border distribution of funds (which include, amongst other things, a harmonised regime for pre-marketing AIFs and rules relating to the contents of marketing communications in relation to AIFs). Please see the “Marketing – Passport” page for more information.
Although the rules explicitly only apply to marketing AIFs under a passport, a recital in the CBDF Directive notes that national rules cannot in any way disadvantage EU AIFMs vis-à-vis non-EU AIFMs. Therefore, some EU Member States may apply similar pre-marketing rules under NPPR, which could therefore affect UK AIFMs seeking to market AIFs into EU Member States. Please see the “Marketing – Private Placement” page for more information, including a link to our Article 42 interactive map, which, among other things, looks at which Member States apply the CBDF pre-marketing rules to Article 42 AIFMs.
The disclosure requirements under Regulation 1286/2014 on key information documents for packaged retail and insurance-based investment products (the “PRIIPs Regulation”) continue to apply in the UK to AIFs made available to retail investors in the UK. The UK has, however, made certain amendments to the technical standards, such that a separate UK PRIIPS KID is generally required.
The UK government has legislated to remove the rules relating to PRIIPS from the UK’s financial services regime, and to replace them with an overarching disclosure framework for retail investors applicable to “Consumer Composite Investments” (“CCIs”). CCIs are defined in a similar way to PRIIPs and will include interests in AIFs. The FCA has closed its consultations on the disclosure requirements for persons intending to distribute their CCI products to retail investors in the UK, with the final rules expected in late 2025.
Under AIFMD, EU AIFMs may avail themselves of a pan-European management passport, enabling them to manage AIFs based in other EU Member States. UK AIFMs no longer have passporting rights to manage EU AIFs and EU AIFMs may no longer exercise passporting rights to manage UK AIFs.
The Trade and Cooperation Agreement agreed between the EU and the UK that came into effect (on a provisional basis at first) following the end of the Transition Period contains very limited provisions in relation to financial services, including in connection with investment funds. However, the EU expressly reserves the right to implement or maintain requirements that (i) only legal persons having their registered office in the European Union can act as depositories of the assets of investment funds; and (ii) fund management activities must be performed by a specialised management company, having its head office and registered office in the same Member State. The UK also reserves its rights in similar terms.
EU AIFMs are able to delegate functions to third parties, including portfolio management, subject to their compliance with obligations imposed by AIFMD and the Level 2 Regulations. Please see the “Delegation” page for more information.
EU AIFMs may still delegate portfolio management to UK based portfolio managers, provided they comply with the AIFMD delegation requirements. As the UK delegate is now considered a third country entity, additional requirements apply to such delegation, notably the requirement for the AIFM’s and the delegate’s supervisory authorities to have in place an adequate cooperation agreement. In satisfaction of this requirement, ESMA and the EU national securities regulators have agreed a multilateral MoU with the FCA, which came into effect at the end of the Transition Period.
Delegation arrangements of AIFMs have been subject to increased attention by European regulators in the recent years. Brexit has further focused attention on this area, as many UK-based fund sponsors have secured continued access to the EU marketing passport by establishing new EU AIFs which they manage as the UK delegate of an EU AIFM. In some cases, the EU AIFM is a third-party service provider or a newly-established EU firm.
Several local EU regulators have reminded domestic AIFMs of their obligations regarding delegation under AIFMD, including with a view to ensuring that these AIFMs do not risk being deemed to be “letter box” entities. By way of example, the CSSF has, amongst other things, clarified expectations regarding minimum staffing and substance of the AIFM, the initial and ongoing due diligence it expects Luxembourg based AIFMs to exercise vis-à-vis its delegates, and how it expects this to be documented. It has also issued a circular clarifying obligations in relation to delegation arrangements.
At the EU level, ESMA has set out certain concerns regarding delegation arrangements, notably in the context of Brexit, in its Opinion of July 2017. In that Opinion, it examined the adequacy of delegation arrangements and, notably, set out its expectations as to ensuring sufficient structure, expertise, substance, and technical as well as human resources that must be retained by the delegating entity, and examined the level of due diligence and monitoring that would need to be conducted by the delegating AIFM. It also set out how it expects local regulators to assess requests for approval of delegation arrangements, in the interest of greater supervisory convergence. ESMA reiterated these matters in its letter to the European Commission of August 2020 in the context of its review of AIFMD.
AIFMD II recognises the importance of delegation for efficient management of investment portfolio as well as for sourcing expertise for certain asset classes or geographies. However, it also expands the requirement to notify the home state regulator of delegation arrangements and provides for additional information to be provided to regulators and ESMA for enhanced supervision of delegation arrangements.
The UK becoming a third country impacts other rights and permissions on which UK-based entities relied when providing services related to the marketing or management of AIFs within the EU, beyond AIFMD itself:
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